CHAPTER 3 BASIC ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH RS-701

CHAPTER 3

BASIC ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH

Research Problems
A problem is an intellectual (دانشورانہ,علمی logical, debatable) stimulus (Idea) calling for an answer in the form of scientific inquiry.

Such preferences are not empirically (علمی) verifiable and thus they do not constitute scientific knowledge

Units of Analysis
I this formulation of a research problem serious consideration (غور,زیر غور) also has to be given to the units of analysis. These are entities to which to our concepts pertain and which influence (اثر انداز) subsequent research design, data collection and data analysis decisions

Variables
There are five types of variables

• Independent variables
• Dependent variables
• Control Variables
• Spurious
• Non spurious 
• Continuous Variables
• Discrete variable

Independent Variables: The independent variables that bring change in dependent variables

Dependent Variables: The dependent variables where the change comes from independent variables 

Control Variable: A control variable is a factor that remains unchanged during a comparison between two other variables the factor will also typically influence values. 

• Spurious Variable: The relation between independent and dependent variable is explained by the third variable (Control variable) is called spurious variable
• Noon Spurious Variable: The relation between independent and dependent variable is not explained by the third variable (Control variable) is called noon spurious variable

Continuous Variables: Continuous variable can take any of an infinite number of values, for example distance could be 2 km, 2.5 km etc.

Discrete Variable: A discrete variable is a variable that can may be take particular set of options like eye color. For example

• Must be brown, blue, green or gray

Relations

Scientific explanations and predictions (پیشن گوئی) involve relating the phenomena (مظاہر) to be explained (dependent variable) to other explanatory (وضاحتی) phenomena (dependent variable) by means of general laws or theories. But what is a relation.

A relation we say that always means a relation between two or more variables. When we say that variable X and variable Y are related, we mean that there is something common to both variables.

Kinds of Relations: We say that two variables are related when changes in the values of one systematically bring changes in the values of the other.

Either the relation is positive or negative

There are two types of relation

• Direction (سمت,کی سمت)
• Magnitude (شدت,حجم)

Direction: When we speak of direction we mean that the relations between variables are either positive or negative. A positive relation means that as values of one variable increase, values of the other also increase.

A negative relation indicates that as values of one variable increase values of the other decrease. High values for one variable are associated with low values for the other.

Magnitude: Relation between variables is characterized (خصوصیات) not only by direction, but also by magnitude. The magnitude of a relation is the extent (level) to which variables covary positively. The highest magnitude of relation is a perfect relation, in which knowledge of the value of one or more independent variables determines (کا تعین کرتا ہے) exactly the value of the dependent variables.

Hypotheses

Hypotheses are tentative (عارضی, Temporary) answers to research problems. They are expressed in the form of a relation independent and dependent variables Hypotheses are tentative conjectures because their veracity can be evaluated only often they have been tested empirically.

H0: Nil                 Higher the education of parents lower the Child labor

H1: Alternative Lower education of parents higher the Child labor  

Tentative relationship between individual and dependent variable   

When a researcher suggests a hypotheses, he or she has no assurance that it will be verified A hypothesis is contracted and if it is rejected, another one is put forward, if it is accepted, it is incorporated into the scientific body of knowledge.

Hypotheses Must Be Clear: Clarity is achieved by means of conceptual and operational.

Hypotheses Are Specific: The investigator has to explicate the expected relations among the variables in terms of direction (that is. positive or negative).

Hypotheses Are Testable with Available Methods: One can arrive at clear, value-free and specific hypothesis and find that there are no research methods to test them.

CHAPTER 1 Method in Sociological Research RS-701

CHAPTER 1

THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH

What is Science?

Unfortunately, science cannot be easily defined laypersons (?), Journalists (صحافیوں), policymakers (پالیسی سازوں), Scholars (علماء کرام, سکالرز) and Scientists (سائنسدانوں) themselves define the term science in different ways and apply it in different context.

Science denotes a body of true knowledge; to still others its means an objective investigation of empirical (عملی تجربہ) phenomena (واقعہ,مسلہ).

• Science has no special subject matter of its own, we do not view every study of phenomena (واقعہ,مسلہ) as science.
• Science is constantly changing; knowledge (شمار,سمجھا) regarded as scientific at present may become unscientific in the future. 
• Science is united not by its subject matter; but by its methodology (طریقہ کار).

For these reasons we shall use the term science throughout this book to mean all knowledge collected by the means of the scientific methodology (طریقہ کار).

Approaches to Knowledge

The scientific approach (نقطہ نظر) is by no means the only mode by which people have attempted to understand their environment and themselves. There are three other general modes that have served the purpose of acquiring (حاصل کرنے, حصول) knowledge 

• The Authoritarian (آمرانہ) mode
• The mystical (صوفیانہ) mode
• The Rationalistic mode

Authoritarian Mode: In the authoritarian (آمرانہ) mode, knowledge is looked for by referring to those who are socially or politically defined.

• Qualified Producers of knowledge
• Oracles in tribal societies  
• Kings in monarchical societies 
• Individuals occupying scientific roles in technocratic societies

Mystical Mode: In the mystical mode, knowledge is solicited form prophets, divines, Gods, Mediums and other Supernaturally knowledgeable authorities. 

However, it differs from the latter in its dependence on manifestations (توضیحات,اظہار) of supernatural signs and on the psychophysical (نفسی طبیعیات ۔ مہیجوں اور حسیت کے درمیانی رابطے کا تجرباتی مطالعہ ۔) state of the knowledge-consumer.

Under conditions of depression, helplessness and intoxication, the knowledge-consumer is most willing to accept items of knowledge produced by the mystical mode.

Rationalistic Mode: The concern of the rationalistic mode is with must be true in principle and what is logically possible and permissible.

The Assumption of Science 

The Scientific approach is grounded on a set of fundamental assumption (مفروضہ) that are unproved and unprovable. They are necessary prerequisites for the conduct of scientific discourse and represent those issues in the area the conduct of scientific discourse (گفتگو) and represent those issues in the area of the philosophy of science that is termed epistemology.

Nature is orderly and Regular: Events do not occur haphazardly (اتفاقیہ طور پر). Even within a rapidly changing environment, it is assumed that there is a degree of order and regularity and that change itself displays patterns that can be understood.

The laws of nature do not prescribe, but rather desirable, what actually is happening.

For example, there is no logically compelling reason why spring should follow winter, winter follow autumn, autumn follow summer and summer follow spring. But they do and regularly so and this regularity underlies observable conditions and phenomena, such as growing seasons.

We Can Know Nature: The assumptions (مفروضات) that we can know nature is no more provable than is the assumption that nature is orderly and that there are laws of nature.

Knowledge is Superior to Ignorance: The contention that knowledge us superior to ignorance dose not mean that everything in nature can or will be known. Rather it is assumed that scientific knowledge is tentative and changing.

All Natural Phenomena Have Natural Causes: The assumption that all natural phenomena have natural causes epitomizes the scientific revelation. 

Nothing is Self-evident: Tradition, subjective belief and common sense could not be exclusively relied upon in the verification of scientific knowledge. Possibilities for error are always present and even the simplest notions call for objective verification, that scientific thinking is skeptical and critical.

Aims Of Social Science 

The ultimate goal  of  the  social  sciences  is to produce an accumulating (جمع) body of reliable knowledge (قابل اعتماد علم). Such knowledge would enable us to explain, predict and understand empirical  phenomena (عملی مظاہر).

The Role of Methodology 

Science is not united by its subject matter but rather by its methodology. 

The scientific methodology is a system of explicit rules and procedures upon which research is based and against which claims for knowledge are evaluated. Rather, the rules and procedures are constantly improved; scientists look for new methods and techniques of observation, inference, generalization, analysis.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS 

Scientific knowledge is knowledge provable by both reason and experience (observation). Logically validity and empirical (علمی) verification are the criteria employed by scientists to evaluate claims for knowledge. These two criteria are translated into the research activities of scientists through the research process. The research process can be viewed as the overall scheme of scientific activities in which scientists engage in order to produce knowledge, it is the paradigm of scientific inquiry.

The generalization ending one cycle is the beginning of the next cycle. 

The research process is also self-correcting, tentative generalizations to research problems are tested logically and empirically.

THE PRINCIPAL STAGES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

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